A The British Museum is host to a wealth of historical artefacts, representing the accomplishments of past civilisations. A Roman-era drinking cup would not, on the face of it, seem to be a contender to rival the museum's more illustrious exhibits. After all, an ancient drinking chalice rarely excites the attention of all but the most dedicated history buff or expert.

B However, the Lycurgus Cup, so-called due to the depiction of King Lycurgus on its outside, is not what it seems. Lit from in front, the relief depicted on the cup glows green. Backlit, the cup glows red. This light-induced colour change is all the more remarkable given the cup's rather bland-looking exterior which holds no clue as to its concealed secret.

C The unusual qualities of the Lycurgus Cup has piqued scientific curiosity since the 1950s when the cup's puzzling colour-changing ability was first uncovered. Only in the 1990s was the secret of the cup revealed: inclusion of miniscule particles of gold and silver into the cup's surface were found to effect the colour

transformation. The particles themselves had been deliberately ground down into nanoparticles, each particle being 50 nanometres in diameter, or equivalent to one thousandth the size of a grain of salt! Moreover, the exact proportions of materials had been included in order to create the illusion of changing colour.

D It would seem, therefore, that nanotechnology can no longer be considered cutting-edge science. It is humbling to realise that Roman artisans living in 400 AD were putting nanotechnology to practical use when scientists today are still exploring this relatively 'new' field.

E The illusion of the Lycurgus Cup can be explained by the effect of electrons within the metallic components of the chalice vibrating in response to being hit by light and emitting different colours. The colour actually perceived depends on where the viewer is stationed at the time.

F It was engineer Gang Logan Liu, of the University of Illinois, who correctly suspected though, that in Roman times, the illusion was primarily effected not through change in lighting or observer position but by the addition of different liquids to the drinking cup. By adding a variety of liquids to a recreation of the cup interior, his original hunch was confirmed. As each liquid was added, a different colour was emitted from the mock-up version of the chalice.

G Liu's experiment most importantly may have a huge impact in the diagnoses of disease. Addition of fluids such as saliva and urine to nano-sized receptacles based on the original Lycurgus cup could reveal the presence of pathogens. Moreover, the same laboratory-manufactured receptacles could detect the presence of biohazards at security checkpoints and hence thwart terrorist attacks.

Questions 22-28

Leadership and its various forms

Leadership styles vary vastly, with very observable differences being seen not only between companies and institutes but also within such bodies. On a more global basis, these types of leadership styles are used to govern countries the world over. Whether one particular leadership style is more effective than another is dependent on whether the needs of a particular organisation or country are being met and those of the individuals who are subject to the authority or governing bodies concerned. In addition, as needs change, certain leadership styles may no longer be appropriate, necessitating the adoption of a new approach. Below the five main types of leadership styles are set out.

Laissez-faire

A laissez-faire leader does not directly supervise employees and does not set great store by regular feedback to those under his supervision. Whilst highly experienced and trained employees may thrive under this leadership style, those employees requiring supervision will tend to flounder when placed in this situation. The real downside to the laissez-faire approach is the lack of leadership and supervision that can result in an escalation of costs, poor production and lack of control.

Autocratic

Epitomising this type of leadership style are the countries of Cuba and North Korea. Autocratic leadership denies the right of the individual to challenge the authority of the leader who imposes their will on those around him. It is deemed unacceptable to challenge the leader's decisions. In a working environment, those who respond best to this kind of leadership are individuals requiring clear guidance and decisions made on their behalf. Those least suited to the autocratic leadership style are creative employees who require a considerable degree of autonomy.

Participative

Participative leadership is synonymous with the democratic leadership style. Unlike autocratic leadership style, the contribution of team members and peers is welcomed. The participative leader will, however, have the final say in any decision-making process. This style of leadership has the effect of boosting employee morale since employees are free to make contributions to the decision-making process, which in turn makes them feel valued by the company concerned. Since the leadership-employee role is more interactive than in other forms of leadership, changes within a company are more readily accepted by employees since they play a role in the process.

Transactional

This leadership style is highly result-oriented. Input from employees amounts to setting predetermined goals with team managers; employees then follow the direction and leadership of the manager to accomplish those goals. A system of rewards and punishments is set up by team managers to ensure tasks are satisfactorily completed.

Transformational

Whilst this type of leadership is goal-oriented as with transactional style of leadership, transformational leaders play a more prominent role in the workplace, ensuring goals are attained by employees.

Managers who adopt this type of leadership role maintain a high visibility and open communication with employees, acting as motivators and enhancing productivity to meet goals. Such managers will tend to delegate smaller tasks to the team to accomplish goals.

A. Cosmetics have been in use almost since time immemorial across diverse cultures. Not only do they serve to enhance natural beauty but they also provide a means of self-expression. From Cleopatra to the modern day, cosmetics have played an integral role in women’s daily beauty regimes.

B. The fashion for cosmetics first started in Ancient Egypt and was later actively embraced by the Romans. In the latter era, cosmetics and their use transcended all classes, as aristocracy and the poor alike availed themselves of all manner of beauty products. However, nail colour was exclusively the preserve of aristocrats, as it continued to be in China in later years. In China this trend even became enshrined in law and transgressors crossing the social divide separating the working class from aristocracy by daring to sport nail colour were summarily executed in public. Quite literally, people died for fashion.

C. As cosmetics grew in popularity, women began to become more extravagant in their use of cosmetics. Imported beauty products from as far away as China, Germany and Gaul were lavishly used by women in their quest for beauty. Excessive use of these costly products ultimately incited public controversy, leading to the introduction of the Lex Oppia Law of I 89 BC. The law curbed the use of cosmetics and over-adornment of women generally in public places. Prior to the law’s introduction, women had been becoming ever more competitive In keeping up appearances, even gambling away huge fortunes on the costly cosmetics.

D. In the following interim period between the Roman era and the Middle Ages, use of cosmetics all but disappeared. The Dark Ages, as this era was termed, saw only very limited use of make-up amongst restricted sectors of the public. An edict issued by the Church, denouncing all those wearing cosmetics as heathens and devil-worshippers, ensured that cosmetics suffered a rapid loss in popularity amongst the public. Overwhelmingly, the use of cosmetics during this era was associated with women of ill repute and actors for whom society had scant regard.

E. Only much later, in the Elizabethan era, did cosmetics become popular once again. Lead preparations were particularly favoured as women sought to lighten their skin. The pallid complexion of Elizabeth I was famously attributed to the application of a poisonous lead compound. Nor were poisonous applications merely restricted to applications of lead substances. Belladonna, obtained from the deadly nightshade plant, was used to enlarge pupils in the belief that this made women more attractive. In addition, mercury compounds, such as mercury sulphide, were applied to the lips for colour. It is no small wonder, therefore, that Queen Elizabeth I lived long enough to be one of England’s longest-reigning monarchs, with her reign lasting a total of 45 years.

F. After a brief resurgence in popularity, during the Elizabethan period, cosmetics only became popular again years later during the reign of another long-reigning monarch, Queen Victoria (1837-1901). As in the Elizabethan era, a pallid complexion was favoured over a tanned look. Mercifully, the pale look was attained through applying concoctions of lemon juice and vinegar as opposed to the more lethal lead preparations of the past. Overt applications of make-up were frowned upon, with lipstick and rouge being studiously avoided.

G. Since make-up was deliberately understated in the Victorian as well as the subsequent Edwardian era (1901 -1910), purveyors of cosmetics were few and far between. Purchase of cosmetics was even a somewhat furtive affair, with clients obtaining products from local chemists or from shops with concealed back door entrances.

H. Only with the advent of Selfridge’s in Oxford Street, London (1909) and the establishing of a cosmetics counter where women could publicly try out cosmetics before purchase did buying and wearing of cosmetics gain acceptability. Today the sheer diversity of cosmetics available and the freedom to apply them sparingly, liberally, or not at all are largely due to the burgeoning of the cosmetics industry, spearheaded in the UK by Gordon Selfridge and the influence of Hollywood in the 1920s.